with stand-up ears.

Chukchi men had their own symbols of military valour. Men of coastal villages wore a head band embroidered with beads indicated number of killed enemies. At the end of the 18^th century the Coastal Chukchi and Eskimos tattooed on their arms images depicting enemies they killed. Probably this was an attempt to turn a dead enemy's soul into helper or even to join his soul to their own. Chukchi who lived near the Kolyma River after every assassination tattooed dot on the interior of their right wrist towards the elbow, from top to bottom. Face tattoo was typical for the Eskimos as to the Maritime Chukchi, whose tattoos appeared under the influence of the former. Tattoo had a guard function. Perhaps, face painting with the reindeer blood originally had a protective nature.

War transport. Even if Chukchi were using any special sledge it didn't differ from the ordinary ones used in a campaign. Male sledge was intended for one person and had couple of gelding male reindeer in harness. For the foray Chukchi used light racing sledge. For pacing used the snow-shoes and skis, which as well was used to walk but not to slide on the snow surface.

The Coastal Chukchi and Eskimos made raids or travels around sea on leather baydars with crew of eight persons each. It is also known a particular type of a large baydar, with rectangular sail made of rovduga, which could cany up to 20―30 persons and was meant to accomplish distant voyages and campaigns. To travel the rivers, the Reindeer Chukchi together with baydars used single-seated boats made of the whole trunk or rafts made of sledges covered with skin.

Warfare. «Primitive» people had two major stereotypes of warfare: either to fight against well-known neighborhood or against permanent hateful enemies. First above mentioned enenly group deign «civilized way» war: declared war in advance, gave time to prepare the fight, sometimes even released captive men and women. Against second group was waged «all-out warfare»: preferred to attack unexpectedly, killed or sometimes tortured to death captives, took away women and children as slaves. During three quarters of the 18^th centuiy Chukchi waged extirpation war against Russians, Koryaks, and Eskimos who inhabited Bering Strait islands and western coast of Alaska. Even waging these wars Chukchi kept elements of the «civilized way» war: threat-warning that notified enemies about next attack or signing an armistice.

Vengeance — major cause of the war, was unwritten law to Chukchi. In the 18^th century war was motivated by economic reasons and bean counter. Chukchi wage permanent wars against Koryaks over reindeer herds. Russians defended Koryaks, who were under Russian jurisdiction, and carried out several campaigns in order to get submission and impose duty. As Yukaghirs allied Cossacks in the second half of the 17^th—18^th centuries, Chukchi began to attack and annihilate them. The Maritime Chukchi foray Bering Strait Islands and Alaska Eskimos for pillage or because of vengeance evolved from quarrels about hunting grounds.

As long as Chukchi had not specialized fighting squads, they did not wage war continuously; their war was seasonal. Material resource absence as well as food supplies lack hampered the development of large-scale operations. The conflict could be resolved by single combat with fixed rules: one side was assaulting another, which protected itself, then vice versa.

Could be clearly recognized exact seasons for the certain operations. In winter Chukchi foray Koryaks to seize their reindeers. The reason was in use of sledges, harnessed with reindeer, which allowed moving headily and was not effective in summer. During winter the Reindeer Chukchi crossed the ice of the Bering Strait to Alaska. In summer they made overseas raids.

The Reindeer Chukchi usually did not stand guards and never erect any permanent fortifications. They spent the night in pologs (tents) during the campaign. Camp planning was quite simple and, perhaps, orient was the area in marching caravan. Usual way of raid was a slow migrating with all kin group towards enemy territory. In long-distance raids only men could participate. In general, during summer time small foot groups by origin from poor families resorted to tundra in search of plunder. In order to avoid unnecessary losses Chukchi attacked their enemies unexpectedly at daybreak in order not to give enemy to organize defence and simply to slaughter sleepers, to seize loot and leave away at once. They usually encircled enemy jarangand one of the warriors fling lasso over the poles of jarang skeleton and overthrow it, while other warriors were killing the villagers and drive herds out.

Leaders clarified beforehand campaign its action plan and objectives. There were strategic and tactic reconnaissance. Important information could be received from a scout who stayed in hostile camp or village as a guest or from runaway slave, as well as from refugees from ruined settlements. Waiting for the enemy scout was observing scene of action from height or spies was send out to the enemy camp, and the arriving enemy send spies to scout around the area and look out for details about the camp of their adversary.

The warriors reached battlefield by sledges in full armour or they put their armour on the spot. They aligned and leader took his stand in the center, which was assaulter. At the battlefield before close fight Chukchi outflank enemy in order to force them to retreat. In general was the following battle tactics: first, both opposite sides shot one at another, and then began to fight with spears in hand-to-hand combat. Characteristic of Eskimos fight was to battle using bow and arrows, while Chukchi were both shooting and fighting hand-to-hand with spears. The latter used new tactics against Russians: they allow enemy to fire a volley and after that rushed to the attack and started in-fighting. Battle turned into series of single combats while warriors showed their skills in fencing.

Battle might begin with single combat that ended with death of one of fighters, his exhaustion or simply with loss of spear — main weapon of duel. After loss of the weapon combat did not continue with knives or with fisticuff. Ending of combat was quite standard: loser has to acknowledge his defeat and was asking to kill him being afraid to deprive his authority in society. After the combat battle continued and usually supporters of the defeated did not flee. This single combat was not only tribute to the heroic ethos but also had underlying theme: a try to avoid unnecessary battle casualties, because even a few men loss had vital importance to the relatively small patriarchal family where every man was a bread-winner. If defeated enemies were not annihilated during the battle, they escaped, and then best runners were picked out for the chase. Male prisoners were usually killed. Victors quite often released only two men in order to break news about defeat to their forces. As long as Chukchi highly rate public opinion the defeated enemy had to spread news about valour and bravery of victors. Dead enemies were left where they fell but their weapon, armour and dress were captured as spoils. Women and children, escorting defeated side with caravan were taken prisoners, and then the latter became slaves. Servitude had a patriarchal nature and was mainly women's because male prisoners were dangerous to families.

Chukchi arranged different sorts of ambushes. In the first place, not numerous troop could was able to make sudden attack numerous enemy and obtain a successful result. Secondly, using feigned retreat was possible to ensnare enemy to entrapment and after all defeat it. Thirdly, started fight from battle-front and thereby not letting enemy to transfer any forces to another positions to gain the rear of the enemy and to encircle it.

Asiatic Eskimos and Coastal Chukchi did not raise special war dogs. However they were using same huskies during military operations of necessity. These animals had several functions. They were guarding dwelling doing ordinary dog's task. Dogs were intended to fight against men in case of attack or pursuit. Finally, considering the brute of predator, dogs were set on reindeer of enemy caravan, thereby taking away hostile transport and causing disorder among people, warriors attacked caravan and followed inevitable defeat of the riders.

Siege and defence. The Reindeer Chukchi, like any nomads at all, had no developed skills of erecting fortifications. They conducted military operations reckoning on surprise, even in spite of the tradition to declare war. The nomadic Chukchi made use of temporary dwelling only, both natural and artificial, as their campaigns were not counted on any long-term siege or defence because the natural conditions and lack of provision laid obstacles to them. They built fortified refuges only in case of serious menaces from the enemy. For erecting such just material at hand was utilized, viz. sledges, skins, stones, and turf. Inhabitants together with herds tried to leave and to find some safe place. If enemy superior in numbers Chukchi preferred to defend from fortifications. Otherwise, war ethos demanded to meet enemy face to face at the battlefield. The main method of defence was shooting arrows from fortifications with the object of inflicting great losses on foe and forcing them to retreat. The storm, a main method of the siege, could be directed both along the entire perimeter of hostile fortification and against their weakest points. No special siege equipment was at Chikchi's disposal. Its lack was replaced by a number of various tricks. Sometimes, when conducting siege operations the Chukchi could make use of big wooden shields to protect themselves form the Russian bullets. After enemy departure temporary fortifications were dismantled. The Maritime Chukchi and Eskimos erected stone fortifications on the heights dominating in area and waited there till the raid was over. Typical way to defend fortification was to slide down sledges laden with stones